This management can involve techniques such as filling of excavated areas with mine spoil or fly ash and diverting or controlling the flow of groundwater to keep it from entering existing mine structures. (2005) reviewed the toxicity literature for uranium and derived the predicted no-effect concentrations (PNECs), which are concentrations of uranium in water or soil below which no adverse effects on exposed organisms are anticipated to occur: • Terrestrial plants, 250 mg U/kg (dry soil), • Other soil biota, 100 mg U/kg (dry soil), • Freshwater benthos, 100 mg U/kg (dry sediment), • Freshwater fish in very soft water (hardness of <10 mg CaCO3/L), 0.4 mg U/L, • Freshwater fish in soft water (hardness of 10-100 mg CaCO3/L), 2.8 mg U/L, • Freshwater fish in hard water (hardness of >100 mg CaCO3/L), 26 mg U/L. These barriers likely would include compacted clay overlain by two synthetic liners with a leak collection system placed between them, and engineering design criteria for tailings management would presumably be set forth in state regulations. This monitoring program would begin well in advance of site operations (i.e., baseline monitoring) and continue during operations, reclamation, and well after closure and decommissioning. Because these bacteria thrive only under acidic conditions, the production of acidity can accelerate and become self-sustaining as long as sulfides and oxygen are available (Drever, 1982). Knowledge gained through baseline and operational monitoring can be used to improve the understanding of site-specific hydrogeology and contaminant transport pathways. Dose limits for episodic exposures to biota have not been promulgated, however, and any such limits would be expected to be higher than limits established for long-term exposures. It is difficult to identify the specific causes of these effects because the low pH and the high concentrations of metals present at low pH are toxic to aquatic biota. Some authors have suggested that chemical toxicity of uranium is usually more important than radiological toxicity, but Mathews et al. To enable a mine to be worked, groundwater needs to be prevented from entering the mine or removed in a process known as dewatering. Mine dewatering activities have the potential to affect surface water quality, particularly if the discharge is not treated. (2009) found that this is not the case for all of the exposure scenarios evaluated. Gamma radiation is different from chemical contaminants because it can travel beyond the source, and direct contact is not necessary for exposure to occur. An aquatic plant will receive a different external dose from the same radiation source than will an invertebrate feeding on the plant or a fish that consumes the invertebrate. Register for a free account to start saving and receiving special member only perks. Although the mitigation activities have been deemed successful, one troubling result from a. long-term study of surface water contamination at the site is an increase in radium concentrations, which Peacey et al. Temporary storage of mill tailings can pose greater short-term environmental risks, unless these facilities are also designed and constructed to contain the waste and treat all effluent under extreme climatic variability. Internal doses result from uptake of radionuclides principally through inhalation and ingestion. • Enhancing site-specific understanding. Excess sediment is recognized as a principal cause of impairment to freshwater streams and creeks nationwide and throughout Virginia (Suren, 2000; USEPA, 2010). Groundwater has been similarly affected by AMD from the Claude waste rock, which has formed a shallow, acidic (pH < 4) groundwater plume with elevated levels of dissolved nickel (>10 mg/L) and uranium (>100 mg/L) migrating away from the waste rock pile. Canada. Even with proactive management efforts like the MLSI, reclamation can be an expensive endeavour. Mines are located in proximity to the starred location in the left-center portion of the figure. This should be accompanied by increased monitoring of the effects on local ecosystems, habitats, and the environment. Numerous National Research Council reports detail the enormous challenges and remaining technological gaps associated with remediating groundwater contaminated with metals and radionuclides (NRC, 2008a, 2009a,b, 2010). • Tailings disposal sites represent potential sources of contamination for thousands of years, and the long-term risks remain poorly defined. The relative increase in runoff would also cause increases in stream discharge in downstream receiving waters, although the percentage increase would be reduced with distance from the mines. When extractive activities cease, restoration processes must be completed, although they normally begin far sooner. Final reclamation of the land after the mine is closed (the process of restoring land that has been mined to a natural or economically usable state) Negative Effects Of Mining On The Environment, Wildlife & Humans. Expanded regulatory oversight combined with a trend toward a lesser number of larger, mechanized mining operations that are governed by binding mining plans are decreasing concerns about unregulated or unmonitored activities. The principal features that are specific to uranium mining will be the toxicity of radioactive materials and those materials co-occurring with uranium and the toxicity of chemicals specific to uranium processing. Other chemicals. Aluminum. Mine reclamation creates useful landscapes that meet a variety of goals ranging from the restoration of productive ecosystems to the creation of industrial and municipal resources. (2009) and Ferrari et al. Baseline data collection would represent one aspect of a more comprehensive site characterization effort, from which site-specific conceptual and numerical models would be generated to integrate the data collected into a system-level understanding. As discussed in Chapter 4, the operating practices used in uranium mining and processing have evolved over recent decades, and by definition, there are no retrospective examinations of the environmental impacts of the most current practices. However, to determine off-site human health and environmental exposure potential from dust (and particle-associated contaminants), meteorological modeling is essential. Toxicity of other radionuclides. Lake Gaston is fed from the Kerr Reservoir which, in turn, is fed by the Dan, Bannister, and Roanoke Rivers in the Roanoke River Basin. Human health exposures may also occur in the surrounding communities if contamination travels offsite via air, surface water, or groundwater. An alternative definition, offered by the, Reclamation activities sometimes can also employ passive means of ecosystem restoration—wherein a less intensive, A pathway towards zero emissions from coal, World Coal Association climate change position, The Tomakomai CCS Demonstration Project – CCS in the community, IEA Special Report on Sustainable Recovery, WCA member company Yancoal transforms opencast mine to recreational hub Lake Kepwari, International Energy Agency’s Clean Coal Centre, Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS), Appalachian Wildlife Foundation’s Mine Land Stewardship Initiative (MLSI), International Council on Mining and Metals (ICMM), Prevent negative impacts to soil, water, and air resources in and near mined areas, Restore the quality of soils to their pre-mining level, Maintain or improve landscape visual and functional quality, Conservation and restoration of ecosystem services, Conservation and restoration of wildlife habitat, Recreational opportunities for mining communities, Scientific and technical knowledge needed to protect and restore wildlife and aquatic habitats on mine lands. So, while it is reassuring that the engineering designs have performed to expectation in the very near term, predictions on their behavior for the next 175 to 975 years have a high degree of uncertainty due to a lack of long-term performance data (NRC, 2007). Groundwater entering the mine can be pumped out and discharged at the surface, or the local water table can be lowered using a number of extraction wells surrounding the mine to prevent water from entering. Belowgrade disposal in a pit or abandoned mine workings would have the benefit of minimizing radon release and acid formation because the tailings could be covered with water. They contain technical information about the conservation of soil, water, air, and related plant and animal resources. As discussed previously, waste rock piles, composed primarily of overburden or low-grade ore from either deep and/or surface mining operations, can also contribute to degradation of surface water quality (e.g., Rum Jungle, Cluff Lake). Learn about recently completed projects under the Environment Effects Act 1978 since 2007. Do you want to take a quick tour of the OpenBook's features? Placer. McCormick et al. The speciation and complexation affect the toxicity of uranium in the environment. Notably, higher levels of calcite or carbonates in the rock, however, may neutralize acidic mine water, allowing metals to stay immobile. The effects of radiological exposure are related to the total amount of energy deposited, expressed in units termed Gray (Gy) per unit time (the radiological dose rate). This could increase the potential for radon or particulate emissions. As discussed previously, tailings could be stored aboveground, partially aboveground, or entirely belowground. (2009) showed that local increases in storm runoff attributable to spatially distributed surface mining and reclamation in the Appalachian Mountains are propagated to receiving rivers downstream. Acidic conditions may promote leaching of other compounds, such as aluminum and iron, from soils (DSEWPC, 2011). Water reclamation (also called wastewater reuse) is the process of converting wastewater into water that can be reused for other purposes. Many of these effects are similar to those encountered in other types of mining, although there are some unique risks posed by uranium mining and processing due to the presence of radioactive substances, and co-occurring chemicals such as heavy metals. An alternative definition, offered by the International Energy Agency’s Clean Coal Centre, is “the process of repairing any negative effects of mining activities on the environment”. EPA’s Superfund program is responsible for cleaning up some of the nation’s most contaminated land and responding to environmental emergencies, oil spills and natural disasters. Depending on the scale of the tailings management area, properly engineered, sited, and constructed tailings disposal areas would not be expected to significantly affect surface water hydrology. The presence of metal sulfide minerals in portions of the waste rock is a cause of particular concern because of the possibility of AMD, and so proper characterization of the chemical properties of waste rock throughout the mining process is an important first step in addressing this potential hazard. Ecologically significant exposures primarily involve (1) spills, leaching, and surface runoff reaching streams and other aquatic environments; and (2) uptake of dissolved chemicals by plant roots. Elevated sediment loads are virtually ubiquitous in disturbed watersheds. Releases of water containing high concentrations of dissolved metals are typically associated with acid mine drainage, as discussed previously in this chapter. Extreme natural events (e.g., hurricanes, earthquakes, intense rainfall events, drought) have the potential to lead to the release of contaminants if facilities are not designed and constructed to withstand such events, or fail to perform as designed. For instance, a uranium mill tailings impoundment that is partially covered with water during facility operation may be dewatered and dried prior to covering. During active tailings management, oxygen entry can be limited by maintenance of a water cover (Figure 6.2) over the tailings area. Although tailings management and water treatment strategies have improved since the 1980s, the environmental assessment performed as part of the Cluff Lake decommissioning project provides a glimpse of what could occur if a modern uranium mining and processing operation were sited in Virginia. For example, since the passage of the 1977 Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act (SMCRA) in the U.S., direct fees have been collected by government agencies from existing coal mining companies. The disposal of waste rock is an issue in mining in general, because the volume of the mine voids cannot contain the entire volume of material removed during a mining operation; waste rock is typically stored in aboveground piles near a mine to minimize handling and disposal costs. Robust safety systems to address long-term risks: The GEP determined that existing safety systems on certain sites are unreliable in the long term, because they function on measures—such as land-use restrictions—that may degrade over time. The most common effects are loss of pore space due to compaction and changed soil structure, loss of permeability, changes in the ability of the soil to provide moisture for plant growth, loss of living organisms vital to healthy soils (e.g., microorganisms and earthworms), loss of viable seed bank with extended storage, loss of soil organic matter and nitrogen, and accelerated erosion. ICMM expressed concern that setting aside growing levels of operating funds in bonds restricts investment and operational flexibility. Therefore the environmental monitoring program in place during operations would not be sufficient during decommissioning to account for this. The “first line” of monitoring could involve direct efforts by the facility operator or by monitoring performed under contract to the owner by local research institutions or private consultants. +44 (0) 20 7851 0061, Unless otherwise specified, images courtesy of Shutterstock, Subscribe for the latest coal industry updates, Returning Mined Land to Productivity Through Reclamation, Reclamation can be roughly defined as the replacement of soil materials—often to approximate original contour—and revegetation of mined areas or areas adjacent to mines that have been affected by mining activities. In 1993, the discovery that sediments and aquatic plants downstream from the Puy de l’Age mine were contaminated with radioactive waste raised concerns about public health and environmental hazards in the area and led to a sustainable redevelopment by the site owner, AREVA NC (formerly Cogema). (1997) showed that the “curve number” (a term describing the potential for surface runoff, with higher numbers reflecting greater runoff potential; NRCS, 2010) increased from a value of 76 for a premining condition to 87 during a period of active mining. of copper can also cause gill tissue damage and even lead to death (USEPA, 2007). Modern tailings management sites are designed to remain segregated from the hydrological cycle for “1,000 years to the extent reasonably achievable and in any case for at least 200 years” to control mobility of metals and radioactive contaminants (10 CFR Part 40, Appendix A, Criterion 6(1)). (2009) calculated a PNEC of 3.2 µg/L (0.0032 mg/L) for freshwater ecosystems.6 The various PNEC values calculated for uranium indicate that uranium is similar in toxicity to metals such as copper and cadmium. A well-constructed monitoring and assessment plan can enable early detection of system failures (whether caused by natural events, human error, or criminal acts), thereby preventing more widespread contamination. In this manner, company insolvency or an abandoned mine will not impose mine closure and reclamation costs on taxpayers. If a major failure of waste containment facilities occurs, due either to extreme natural events or inadequate design, construction, or maintenance of such facilities, the potential long-term environmental effects are likely to be more than trivial. A model (or models) developed for a uranium mining/processing project should include all significant environmental pathways linking potential sources of radionuclides and nonradiological contaminants to human and nonhuman receptors. Physical impacts may include increased sediment loads and habitat disturbance, whereas chemical impacts may include emissions from diesel equipment or contaminated water from mine pits. This would involve preparing and formalizing a decision-making process to implement long-term management options. Particles can also be mobilized by wind blowing over ore stockpiles. Although these options are likely to mitigate the remaining environmental problems at Cluff Lake to a significant degree, experience has shown that the environmental legacy of uranium mining is persistent over long periods of time. Uranium extraction using a strong acid leaching technique also tends to solubilize metals—the same process that occurs in AMD. In fact, increasingly conservative expectations of certainty relating to environmental protection could place such strict financial and administrative pressures on mining companies that mining projects could be cancelled as uneconomic. The Coles Hill uranium deposit and a number of other properties with former uranium leases (but unproven potential) are located upstream of Virginia Beach’s drinking water intake, located in Lake Gaston. Increases in stormflow could be modulated to some degree by utilizing the mining pit for temporary water storage, but typical sediment detention ponds provide little in the way of stormflow attenuation, particularly for extreme events. Based on the use of the data, the monitoring program can be designed to include the frequency, sample size, location, and parameters that are of interest. Surface mining, on the other hand, would be expected to produce significant increases in surface runoff (especially stormflow) on-site relative to the unmined condition. +44 (0) 20 3745 2760Fax. Given its location in a topographic low, constructed surface diversions were employed to isolate the tailings management area from the erosive effects of inflowing surface water. EES process in Victoria. SOURCE: Virginia Department of Environmental Quality Regulation 9VAC-260-140: Criteria for Surface Water. Ingestion-related pathways can include consumption of, BOX 6.3 The solid-phase concentrations of the radionuclides and co-occurring potential contaminants of concern (e.g., vanadium, arsenic) in the mill tailings will depend on the ore grade, site-specific mineralogy, and uranium extraction process (acid versus alkaline leaching). The highest concentrations were observed in fish, although Muscatello and Janz (2009b) found no overt effects of selenium exposures on adult spawning northern pike and white sucker fish or on the eggs and larvae compared with those in a nearby uncontaminated lake. Island Lake, however, was adversely affected because of its location immediately downstream of the mill effluent treatment systems. The primary factor responsible for the lower LCC in each case was a decrease in the soil’s available water capacity—a measure of the. The length and frequency of baseline monitoring would need to be sufficient to capture the natural inter- and intraannual variability. There is no evidence that radiological dose limits for aquatic or terrestrial biota were exceeded in any of these cases. However, the vast majority of contemporary reclamation and restoration efforts are based on technical reclamation, which exceeds simply repairing the affected property. Modern mitigation techniques for waste rock disposal would also include (1) careful siting of waste rock piles and construction of drainage ditches to facilitate collection of leachates; (2) isolation and burial of waste rock with high potential for contamination in low permeability strata to minimize interactions with water and air; and (3) if warranted, chemical. The FRA is made up of five steps: Phoenix #2 mine is a 560-acre (227-ha) operation, originally permitted in January 2001 under the approximate original contour (AOC)-plus backfill guidelines. Passive hydraulic isolation employs materials of contrasting permeability to direct water flow around rather than through the tailings. Agriculture Branch. The guidance provides methods for using these models to calculate biota concentration guides (BCGs), which are concentrations of specific nuclides in environmental media that would produce a dose exactly equal to the recommended dose limit, considering all environmental pathways and both external and internal exposures. One of the keys to any environmental and public health protection program is an environmental monitoring strategy that is designed to inform these decisions. For example, arsenic and selenium have been found associated with uranium at ore deposits in Canada, but they are not present in significant concentrations in the Coles Hill, Virginia, deposit. According to the World Wildlife Fund, the land used and abandoned in the last 50 years globally may be equal to the amount of land used today. Increases in the extent of surface runoff contribute to increases in constituent loads (load is the product of concentration and hydrological flux). During mine site reclamation, topsoil that had been stockpiled during the mining process is replaced on the land. Baseline characterization includes, at minimum, chemical, physical, and radioactive elements of the water, air, and soil; biological indices (e.g. In the case of an aboveground or partially aboveground tailings facility, a tailings dam failure could lead to significant release of contaminated water. Even with mining plans in place, mining can substantially affect local or regional environments. Both underground and opencast mines require reclamation, but the approaches are different. Based on a field study of surface mining in Ohio in which both storm rainfall and runoff were measured, Bonta et al. The legacy of abandoned mines, however, is being addressed in many areas. Documented impacts include water quality effects (e.g., elevated concentrations of trace metals, arsenic, and uranium) caused by acid mine drainage or oxidation of groundwater, localized reduction of groundwater levels, off-site dust transport, and impaired populations of aquatic and terrestrial biota. For purposes of this report, the materials of concern include some nonradioactive substances (especially dissolved heavy metals and metalloids), as well as naturally occurring radioactive materials (NORM), technologically enhanced naturally occurring radioactive materials (TENORM), and both solid and liquid tailings from processing operations. Technical guides used in each field office are localized so that they apply specifically to the geographic area for which they are prepared. 2. 7http://www.epa.gov/rpdweb00/marssim/marsame.html. Show this book's table of contents, where you can jump to any chapter by name. Major failures would necessitate aggressive remediation strategies and possibly long-term active site management to limit off-site migration and restore the affected area. • Tailings disposal sites represent significant potential sources of contamination for thousands of years, and the long-term risks remain poorly defined. Mining land use. The report described a framework of recommendations based on the need for such a comprehensive program. 5 See http://www.osha.gov/dts/shib/shib120505.html. The major purposes of an environmental monitoring and assessment program include: • Determining and demonstrating compliance. Additionally, facilities may use other on-site monitoring to aid in documentation of material control and security, through material balances (see also NCRP, 2011). Measured mean annual concentrations of total dissolved solids, sulfate, chloride, uranium, and molybdenum in Island Lake in 2002 were two or three orders of magnitude higher than during the baseline (i.e., premining) monitoring period. The Phoenix #2 mine was the recipient of the U.S. Office of Surface Mining’s 2010 Excellence in Reforestation Award for almost a decade’s worth of reclamation efforts and implementation of the Appalachian Regional Reforestation Initiative’s (ARRI) Forest Reclamation Approach (FRA). One of the site is not the case of an aboveground or partially aboveground, or entirely belowground than... Efforts like the MLSI, reclamation and restoration: the GEP found that devices deployed at certain sites often. Is assessing the attainment of best-practice discharge targets, which directly affects the physical, chemical, and with million... A non-compacted growth medium on groundwater quantity at the state and local level, the primary emphasis of OpenBook! 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